Outlining—Generating Items and Sequencing Them

When you write a technical report, not only must you think of the right information to include (or exclude); you must also find a good way to arrange it. This is a two-part chapter: this part focuses on generating outline items and sequencing them; the second part focuses on turning a rough outine into a good, polished outline.

Outlines for technical reports are usually hard to handle solely in your mind; it's a little like trying to add a list of large numbers mentally. You must get report outlines in print in order to think about the arrangement of the topics within them. A good working outline serves you in at least four important ways:

• It shows you which areas of information to investigate and gather information on.
• It shows you which areas you can safely ignore (thus saving you plenty of time).
• It enables you to schedule your work into manageable units of time.
• It gives you a "global" view of your report project, an overall sense of the contents, parts and organization of the report.

If you go through a brainstorming process, you have generated a rough list of topics that you can start working with. The topic list below concerns cocombustion, which is the incineration of municipal solid waste (MSW) with conventional fuels to reduce conventional fuel consumption costs and related MSW disposal problems. Imagine that you had developed a topic list on this subject and then had narrowed the list to these topics:

Advantages of cocombustion
Steps in cocombusting MSW
Disadvantages of cocombustion
Historical background on cocombustion
Economics of cocombustion
Special components for cocombustion
Composition of MSW
Cocombustion power plant construction costs
Cocombustion power plant operating costs
Economic advantages of cocombustion
Environmental advantages of cocombustion
Characteristics of municipal solid waste (MSW)
Environmental disadvantages of cocombustion
Methods of MSW disposal

You can tell that the list above needs serious help:

• You can see that a number of topics involve advantages and disadvantages; these might be combined in a more general outline called Advantages and Disadvantages of Cocombustion. The specific related topics would be subordinated beneath this more general topic:
  
  Advantages and Disadvantages of Cocombustion
  Advantages of cocombustion
  Disadvantages of cocombustion
  
• But wait a minute! One of the advantages has to do with economics. So we could create another group:
  
  Economics of cocombustion
  Economic advantages of cocombustion
  Cocombustion power plant construction costs
  Cocombustion power plant operating costs
  
• So what do we do with Environmental advantages of cocombustion and Environmental disadvantages of cocombustion? It might be best to create a higher-level heading Environmental aspects of cocombustion and subordinate those other two beneath it. And so that means we no longer need Advantages and Disadvantages of Cocombustion. It has been split into an economics group and an environment group.
• Looking further at the rough list of topics, you can probably see that Steps in cocombusting MSW, Special components for cocombustion, Composition of MSW, Characteristics of municipal solid waste (MSW) are related to each other and should exist in their own area of the outline.

So this is how the business of generating, grouping, combining and subordinating works early in the outlining process. Outlining is a messy process so you'll probably come back to this phase again.

The next step in outlining is to sequence the items appropriately. There are so many different patterns of sequencing that only most common ones can be reviewed here. And, frankly, these are all pretty obvious. If they are obvious to you, skip to Elaborating the rough outline.

• Chronological sequencing. One of the most common patterns in outlining is the chronological one. In a historical background section of an outline, the chronological approach is just about the only one you can use. Here is an outline excerpt concerning the historical background of nuclear research:
  
  

  II. Historical background of nuclear research A. Becquerel's theory of radition in uranium (1896) B. The work of the Curies (far C. The work of Rutherford past) 1. Demonstration of the internal structure of the atom (1911) 2. Transmutation of atoms (1919) D. Development of technology to study atomic structure 1. Cascade transformer (1928) 2. Linear accelerator (1931) 3. Cyclotron (1932) 4. Betatron (1940) E. Hahn-Strassmann discovery of uranium fission (1938) F. Oppenheimer work on nuclear chain reactions (near (1940s) past) G. Explosion of the first atomic bomb (1945)

  In some outlines, however, you almost don't notice the chronological pattern. For example, effects come after causes; solutions, after problems; or findings, after research method. The chronological pattern is most important in a research proposal outline:
  
  

  I. Introduction A. Historical background on caffeine studies (past) B. Objectives of the study C. Limitations of the study D. Plan of development II. Review of the literature on caffeine III. Experimental method to be used IV. Results of the tests V. Discussion of the results VI. Summary and conclusions VII. Implications for further research (future)

  Chronologically, the researcher first defines the problem, the reviews the literature on the problem, plans a research method, conducts the research and gathers data, analyzes the data and draws conclusions from it. Afterward, she may consider areas for further research on the problem.
• At-rest to in-motion sequence. Another common outlining pattern is to start with an object at rest, motionless as if in a photograph, and then to move to a discussion of it in operation, in action as if in a motion picture.
  
  

  II. Basic Components of Wind-Powered Electrical Systems A. Rotor (motionless) B. Generator C. Tower III. Basic Operation of Wind-Powered Electrical Systems A. Wind energy into mechanical energy B. Mechanical energy into electrical (in motion) energy C. Stabilization of electrical energy D. Conversion to household current

• Specific to general sequence. Some outlines move from a specific, close-up focus to a more general, panoramic focus. They seem to start with a microscope, examining the minute details of a subject, and end with a telescope, considering the subject from a distance in relation to other things. (This pattern can also be reversed.)
  
  

  I. Introduction II. Characteristics of municipal solid waste (MSW) III. Methods of disposal of MSW (microscope) IV. Processing municipal solid waste V. Plant modifications for cocombustion VI. Advantages of cocombusting MSW A. Environmental advantages B. Economic advantages (telescope) VII. Case studies of three cocombustion plants

  In this next outline, the focus broadens after part III, changing to aspects related to computerized voice recognition technology:
  
  

  I. Introduction II. Human voice production A. The generation of sound B. Factors affecting the human (microscope) voice III. Components of the isolated word recognition system A. The preprocessor B. The feature extractor C. Components in the classification phase D. Decision algorithms IV. Problems with computerized speech recognition A. Accuracy B. Limited vocabulary size C. Privacy V. Applications of voice recognition systems A. Data entry B. Mobility C. Security D. Telephone access E. Devices for the handicapped (telescope) VI. Current availability of speech recognition systems VII. The future of the computerized speech recognition industry

• Rhetorical sequence. Elements in outlines can also be arranged rhetorically, in other words, according to what is most effective for the reader. Here are some examples of rhetorical patterns:
  
  • Simple to complex
  • Least important to most important (or vice versa)
  • Least controversial to most controversial
  • Most convincing to least convincing (or vice versa)
  • Most interesting to least interesting

This list is by no means complete: but you can see that elements in it are arranged according to impact on the reader—that is, the impact the writer would like to have. Here are some excerpts of outlines where these patterns are used.

If you have ever studied computer programming, you know that commands like PRINT are simple; variable assignment commands (like LET A = 30), less simple; and FOR-NEXT loop statements, rather complex. If you were outlining a report on fundamental BASIC commands for the beginner, you'd probably start with the simple ones and work your way to the complex:

                  Simple-to-complex order

 III. USEFUL BASIC COMMANDS
      A. PRINT
      B. LET
      C. IF-THEN
      D. FOR-NEXT
      E. DIM

If you were writing a report on cocombustion of municipal solid waste (MSW) for a city concerned about skyrocketing coal costs, you could arrange your advantages section two ways: (a) save the "reduction of coal consumption" for last in order to build up to a climax, or (b) introduce it right away to grab the citizens' attention:

    Climax order                  Attention-getting order
(least-most important)               (most-least important)

 A. Recovery of revenue from       A. Reduction of coal use and
    recyclable MSW                    and related costs
 B. Reduction of landfill          B. Reduction of landfill
    use, costs, and other re-         use, costs, and other re-
    lated problems                    lated problems
 C. Reduction of coal use          C. Recovery of revenue from
    and related costs                 recyclable MSW

               Outline excerpt with interruption

        I. Municipal solid waste generated in the US
           A. Total amounts of MSW
              1. Increases since 1950
              2. Projected increases to the year 2000
           B. Processing MSW for cocombustion
              1. Primary storage
              2. Grinding
              3. Air sorting
              4. Magnetic separating
              5. Screening
              6. Secondary storage
           C. Characteristics of MSW
              1. Composition of MSW
                 a. food waste
                 b. paper and other rubbish
                 c. noncombustibles
              2. Factors affecting enery content
                 a. moisture content
                 b. areas of MSW origination
       II. Power plant modifications for cocombustion

                   Revised outline excerpt

        I. Municipal solid waste generated in the US
           A. Total amounts of MSW
              1. Increases since 1950
              2. Projected increases to the year 2000
           B. Characteristics of MSW
              1. Composition of MSW
                 a. food waste
                 b. paper and other rubbish
                 c. noncombustibles
              2. Factors affecting enery content
                 a. moisture content
                 b. areas of MSW origination
        II. Processing MSW for cocombustion
             A. Primary storage
             B. Grinding
             C. Air sorting
             D. Magnetic separating
             E. Screening
             F. Secondary storage
       III. Power plant modifications for cocombustion

        I. Historical background
           A. Rising energy, utility costs
           B. Search for alternatives (review)
       II. Composition of MSW
      III. Special components of the cocombustion plant
       IV. Steps in the cocombustion of MSW
        V. Economics
           A. Cost to build or convert
           B. Cost to operate
           C. Cost of produced electricity
       VI. Advantages
           A. Less coal used
           B. Reduction of utility rates
           C. Less landfill used
           D. Reduction of landfill costs and needs
      VII. Disadvantages
           A. Expense of converting existing facilities
           B. Handling MSW
           C. Increased emissions

Elaborating the rough outline

When you "elaborate" a rough outline, you divide and subdivide the items already listed. Even without having done much research, you'll have a fair idea of what these second- and third-level items will be.

     I. Historical background
        A. Rising costs of conventional fuels
        B. Problems with coventional MSW disposal
        C. Alternatives
    II. Composition of MSW
        A. Properties
        B. Sources
        C. Energy content
        ...
   III. Special components of the cocombustion plant
        A. Component 1
        B. Component 2
        C. Component 3
        ...
    IV. Steps in the process of cocombustion with coal
        A. Step 1
        B. Step 2
        C. Step 3
        ...

Notice how the basic kinds of writing and organizational patterns (covered previously) are used in elaborating the rough outline. With an elaborated outline, you can begin to read and take notes: each item represents a question mark that you need to get information on. As you get this information, you can make the wording of outline items more specific: for example, Component 1 would change to Collection receptacles. Here's an excerpt of the same outline above, but much further along:

3. Special components of the cocombustion plant
   a. collection receptacles
   b. power compaction unit
   c. storage pits
   d. incinerator feed system
      1. gravity chute
      2. ram feeder
      3. hopper
      4. furnace
      5. charging gate

Elaborating the rough outline is essentially a process of dividing that outline using two basic principles:

• Division into similar elements. Many elements in a rough outline can be divided into groups of similar elements:
  
  

  Elements of discussion Subdivisions An object or mechanism................ Parts, components, or characteristics A process or event.................... Steps, phases, or stages A classification...................... Types, kinds, or sorts A comparison.......................... Points of similarity or difference Causal discussions.................... Causes, effects, benefits, problems, or solutions

  Thus, a discussion of the main element "incinerator feed system" in a rough outline could be elaborated this way—into parts:
  
  

  Rough outline Elaborated outline 3. Special components of 3. Special components of a cocombustion plant cocombustion plant a. collection receptacles b. power compaction unit c. storage pits d. incinerator feed system

• Division into elements related topically. Elements in an outline can subdivide by topics that are all related but that are not similar to each other as above:
  
  

  Rough outline Elaborated outline (D. Incinerator feed system) (D. Incinerator feed system) 4. Furnace 4. Furnace 5. Charging gate a. purpose b. main types c. main components d. materials e. dimensions f. design problems 5. Charging gate

  As a result of elaborating procedures like these, an excerpt of a more detailed outline of the cocombustion report might look like this:
  
  

  I. Municipal solid waste generated in the US A. Total amounts of MSW 1. Increases since 1950 2. Projected increases to the year 2000 B. Characteristics of MSW 1. Composition of MSW a. food waste b. paper and other rubbish c. noncombustibles 2. Factors affecting enery content a. moisture content b. areas of MSW origination II. Processing MSW for cocombustion A. Primary storage B. Grinding C. Air sorting D. Magnetic separating E. Screening F. Secondary storage III. Power plant modifications for cocombustion A. Storage areas B. Conveyor lines C. Boiler modifications D. Air control equipment IV. Advantages of cocombusion A. Environmental advantages 1. Reduction of landfill needs 2. Reduction of coal use 3. Recovery of recyclable materials B. Economic advantages 1. Reduction of MSW disposal costs 2. Revenue from recyclables 3. Reduction of utility bills V. Disadvantages of cocombustion A. Potential for increased air pollution B. Problems with processing MSW

You should also make sure that items in your outline are on the right level. Here is an example of this problem and a revision:

        Unadjusted outline                   Revised outline

A. Plant Modifications for Coc-      A. Plant modifications for Co-
   combustion                           combustion
   1. Storage areas                     1. Storage areas
   2. Conveyor lines                    2. Conveyor lines
   3. Boiler modifications              3. Boiler modifications
   4. Air control equipment             4. Air control equipment
B. Economic Benefits                 B. Benefits of Cocombustion
C. Environmental Benefits               1. Economic benefits
                                        2. Environmental benefits

In this revision, the problem was solved by adding a more general item (Benefits of Cocombustion) and downshifting the original "B" and "C" items. Now, here's another example:

        Unadjusted outline                   Revised outline

B. Environmental Benefits            B. Environmental benefits
C. Reduction of Landfill Needs          1. Reduction of landfill
D. Economic Benefit                        needs
                                        2. Reduction of Coal
                                           Consumption
                                     C. Economic benefits

Here, Reduction of Landfill Needs is really a subdivision of Environmental Benefits. Downshifting it to a "1" creates a single-item entry, however. Therefore, we might add a second item like Reduction of Coal Consumption.

I would appreciate your thoughts, reactions, criticism regarding this chapter: your response—David McMurrey.