Basic Patterns and Elements of the Sentence

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This section is a quick review of the fundamentals of the sentence. If you encounter unfamiliar terminology in this book or in your class, refer to this section for help. For more on osentence grammar, see English Fundamentals by Emery, Kierzek, and Lindblom (Macmillan) for a thorough discussion of sentence grammar, along with exercises.

Subject + verb. The simplest of sentence patterns is composed of a subject and verb without a direct object or subject complement. It uses an intransitive verb, that is, a verb requiring no direct object:

Subject + linking verb + subject complement. Another simple pattern uses the linking verb, any form of the to be verb without an action verb:

Subject + verb + direct object. Another common sentence pattern uses the direct object:

Subject + verb + indirect object + direct object. The sentence pattern with the indirect object and direct object is similar to the preceding pattern:

Subject + verb + direct object + object complement. The sentence pattern using the [direct object] and object complement is not common but worth knowing:

Passive voice pattern. The passive voice is not ordinarily considered a "pattern," but it is an important and often controversial construction. It reverses the subject and object and, in some cases, deletes the subject. (See the section on problems with the weak use of the passive.) Compare these example active and passive voice sentences:

Simple sentences. A simple sentence is one that contains subject and a verb and no other independent or dependent clause.

Compound sentences. A compound sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, or, nor, but, yet, for) and a comma, an adverbial conjunction and a semicolon, or a semicolon.

Compound predicates. A predicate is everything in the verb part of the sentence after the subject (unless the sentence uses inverted word order). A compound predicate is two or more predicates joined by a coordinating conjunction. Traditionally, the conjunction in a sentence consisting of just two compound predicates is not punctuated.

Subject. The subject of a sentence is that noun, pronoun, or phrase or clause about which the sentence makes a statement.

Verb phrase. The main verb, or verb phrase, of a sentence is a word or words that express an action, event, or a state of existence. It sets up a relationship between the subject and the rest of the sentence.

Predicate. The predicate is the rest of the sentence coming after the subject. It can include the main verb, subject complement, direct object, indirect object, and object complement.

Subject complement. The subject complement is that noun, pronoun, adjective, phrase, or clause that comes after a linking verb (some form of the be verb):

Direct object. A direct object—a noun, pronoun, phrase, or clause acting as a noun—takes the action of the main verb. A direct object can be identified by putting what?, which?, or whom? in its place.

Indirect object. An indirect object—a noun, pronoun, phrase, or clause acting as a noun—receives the action expressed in the sentence. It can be identified by inserting to or for.

Object complement. An object complement—a noun or adjective coming after a direct object—adds detail to the direct object. To identify object complements, insert [to be] between the direct object and object complement.

Nouns. A noun is the name of a person (Dr. Sanders), place (Lawrence, Kansas, factory, home), thing (scissors, saw, book), action (operation, irrigation), or idea (love, truth, beauty, intelligence). Remember that, while a word may look like a noun, it must function in the sentence as a noun:

Pronouns. A pronoun stands in the place of a noun. There are several types: personal pronouns, demonstrative and indefinite pronouns, and relative and interrogative pronouns. Pronouns have antecedents, a reference to a word they take the place of.

Personal pronouns include nominative case, objective case, and possessive case pronouns.

• Nominative case pronouns are used in the positions of subjects or subjective complements; they include:

  I	we
  you	you
  he, she, it	they

• Objective case pronouns are used as direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of prepositions; they include:

  me	us
  you	you
  him, her, it	them

• Possessive case pronouns show possession; they include:

  my, mine	our, ours
  your, yours	your, yours
  his	their, theirs
  her, hers	its

• Demonstrative and indefinite pronouns. Demonstrative pronouns substitute for things being pointed out; indefinite pronouns substitute for unknown or unspecified things:

  Demonstrative pronouns	Indefinite pronouns
  this, these	each, either
  that, those	any, neither
  	anybody, some
  	every, somebody
  	everybody, someone

• Relative and interrogative pronouns link dependent to independent clauses; they link to adjective or noun clauses to simple sentences. Relative pronouns include

  who	when	which
  whom	where	whether
  whose	why	that

  
  
  Here are some examples of relative pronouns in use:
  
  

  Until the early 1960s, desk calculators, which performed only the basic arithmetic operations, were essentially mechanical in operation. The invention of the transistor in 1948 and the integrated circuit in 1964 were two events that formed the basis of the electronic calculator revolution. The form in which memory is presented to the software is sometimes called local address space. George Boole, who was a self-taught man, is famous for his pioneering efforts to express logical concepts in mathematical form. In 1855, Boole married Mary Everest, a niece of Sir George Everest after whom Mount Everest was named. Lemaître proposed that all the matter in the Universe was concentrated into what he termed the primeval atom, whose explosion scattered material into space to form galaxies, which have been flying outward ever since.

• Interrogative pronouns, similar to relative pronouns, are used in question sentences:
  
  

  What is the fundamental unit of storage in a computer? When did the first exhibit of computer graphics occur? Who were the mathmaticians that arranged that first exhibit? Where was the first computer graphics exhibit held? Why is computer-aided art not considered art by some?

Verbs. Traditionally, verbs are divided into four groups: active verbs, linking verbs, auxiliary verbs, and modals.

• Active verbs. Active verbs express some sort of action and can be subdivided into intransitive and transitive verbs. Intransitive verbs do not take direct objects while transitive verbs do, as these two sets of examples show:
  
  

  Intransitive verbs

  The rearrangement or division of a heavy nucleus may occur naturally (spontaneous fission) or under bombardment with neutrons. The probability of an accident leading to the melting of the fuel core was estimated to be one chance in 20,000 reactor-years of operation. The fuels used in ramjet engines burn in only a narrow range of fuel-air ratios.

  Transitive verbs

  The generation of electric energy by a nuclear power plant requires the use of heat to produce steam or to heat gases in order to drive turbogenerators. In an auxiliary relay, when the applied current or voltage exceeds a threshold value, the coil activates the armature, which either closes the open contacts or opens the closed contacts. The solar power satellite absorbs the solar energy in geosynchronous orbit. In the photovoltaic solar power system, solar cells convert the light energy into electricity.

• Linking verbs. A linking verb is any form of the verb to be without an action verb; it sets up something like an equal sign between the items it links. Linking verbs of a sentence can be longer than one word:
  
  

  had been	would have been
  was being	might have been
  had to have been	will have been

  
  A few linking verbs do not use to be but function like it:
  
  

  That word processing program seems adequate for our needs. This calculus problem looks difficult. Since the oil spill, the beach has smelled bad. He quickly grew weary of computer games.

• Auxiliary verbs. Auxiliary verbs "help" the main part of the verb. Here are some auxiliary verbs:
  
  

  By 1967, about 500 U.S. citizens had received heart transplants. Better immunosuppression management in transplant operations has yielded better results. Researchers have found propranolol to effective in the treatment of heartbeat irregularities.

• Modals. Modal verbs change the meaning of the verb in a variety of ways as illustrated in the examples below:
  
  

  Cracks in the welding can only be detected by x-rays. Liquid oxygen could have leaked into the turbine and caused the fire. The light metal fast-breeder reactor must be operated under extreme safety precautions.

  
  Verbs are used together in a complex variety of tenses. In the chart below, keep in mind that "continuous" tenses are those that use -ing and "perfect" tenses are those that use some form of the auxiliary verb have.
  
  

  Simple Present	works
  Present Continuous	is working
  Present Perfect	has worked
  Simple Past	worked
  Past Continuous	was working
  Past Perfect	had worked
  Simple Future	will work
  Future Continuous	will be working
  Future Perfect	will have worked
  Present Perfect Continuous	has been working
  Past Perfect Continuous	had been working
  Future Perfect Continuous	will have been working

Adjectives. An adjective provides more detail about a noun; that is, it modifies a noun. Adjectives occur just before the nouns they modify, or after a linking verb:

Adverbs. An adverb provides more information about a verb, adjective, or another adverb; that is, it "qualifies" the verb, adjective, or adverb:

Conjunctions. Conjunctions link words, phrases, and whole clauses to each other and are divided into coordinating, adverbial, and subordinating conjunctions. In this list, only the list of coordinating conjunctions is complete:

• Coordinating conjunctions link words, phrases, and clauses. Here are some examples:
  
  

  Nuclear-powered artificial hearts proved to be complicated, bulky, and expensive. In the 1960s, artificial heart devices did not fit well and tended to obstruct the flow of venous blood into the right atrium. The blood vessels leading to the device tended to kink, obstructing the filling of the chambers and resulting in inadequate output. The small clots that formed throughout the circulatory system used up so much of the clotting factor that uncontrolled bleeding from external or internal injury became a risk. Current from the storage batteries can power lights, but the current for appliances must be modified within an inverter.

• Adverbial conjunctions link two separate sentences, but require a semicolon or colon:
  
  

  The Kedeco produces 1200 watts in 17 mph winds using a 16-foot rotor; on the other hand, the Dunlite produces 2000 watts in 25 mph winds. The first artificial hearts were made of smooth silicone rubber which apparently caused excessive clotting and, therefore, uncontrolled bleeding. (This example does not contain two sentences; no semicolon, therefore, is needed.) For short periods, the fibers were beneficial; however, the eventual buildup of fibrin on the inner surface of the device would impair its function. The atria of the heart contribute a neglible amount of energy; in fact, the total power output of the heart is only about 2.5 watts.

• Subordinating conjunctions combine separate sentences in a different way: they turn one of the sentences into an adverb clause. Here are some examples of subordinating conjunctions:
  
  

  The heart undergoes two cardiac cycle periods: a diastole, when blood enters the ventricles, and systole, when the ventricles contract and blood is pumped out of the heart. Whenever an electron acquires enough energy to leave its orbit, the atom is positively charged. If the wire is broken, electrons will cease to flow and current is zero.

Phrases and clauses are groups of words that act as a unit and perform a single function within a sentence. A phrase may have a partial subject or verb but not both; a dependent clause has both a subject and a verb (but is not a complete sentence). Here are a few examples (not all phrases are highlighted because some are embedded in others):

Prepositional phrases. A prepositional phrase, composed of a preposition and its object, shows relationships involving time, direction, or space:

Appositives. An appositive, a word or phrase that renames a noun or pronoun, adds information about a noun but in a way different than do adjectives:

Participial phrases. A participial phrase is a group of words acting as an adjective and modifying a noun or pronoun. A participle is the -ed or -ing form of a verb:

Gerunds and gerund phrases. Similar in appearance to a participial phrase, the gerund plays the role of noun. A gerund is a single word with -ing used as a noun. A gerund phrase is a single word with -ing accompanied by its objects, complements, and modifiers; it is a group of words acting as noun:

Adjective clauses. An adjective clause is almost a complete sentence—but not quite. It functions the same way a single-word adjective does: both modify, that is, add more information to our understanding of a noun. Adjective clauses contain (1) a relative pronoun, (2) in some cases, a subject, (3) a complete verb, and (4) any other accompanying predicates or objects:

Adverb clauses. An adverb clause is also nearly a complete sentence; it functions like an adverb does by explaining the how, when, where, and why of the discussion. The adverb clause usually contains a subordinating conjunction, a subject, a complete verb, and any other related phrases or clauses:

Noun clauses. A noun clause is a group of words used as a noun. Introduced by a relative pronoun, a noun clause can play any of the functions a noun plays: subject, direct object, object of preposition, subjective or object complement. Here are example noun clauses, with their functions labelled:

Coordinated elements. Many of the sentence elements described above can be "coordinated"; that is, they can be doubled, tripled, or even quadrupled and linked with coordinating conjunctions like and and or. For example, in the phrase "a black and white Datsun 240Z," two adjectives are are coordinated. Here are some examples of coordinated sentence elements: